1927 The Way Of All Flesh - Samuel Butler(Jonathan Cape)

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**"The Way of All Flesh"** is a semi-autobiographical novel by **Samuel Butler**, written between 1873 and 1884 but published posthumously in 1903. The novel is a critique of Victorian society, particularly the institution of the family, the church, and the rigid moral codes of the time.

### Overview:
"The Way of All Flesh" follows the life of **Ernest Pontifex**, a young man born into a strict and oppressive Victorian family. The novel traces his struggles with his family, his faith, and his quest for personal freedom. Through Ernest's story, Butler offers a scathing critique of the hypocrisy and moral constraints imposed by Victorian values.

### Plot Summary:

- **Family and Upbringing**: Ernest is the son of Theobald and Christina Pontifex, who embody the Victorian ideals of piety and strict discipline. Theobald, a clergyman, is harsh and authoritarian, while Christina is hypocritically pious. Their treatment of Ernest stifles his individuality and independence from an early age.

- **Education and Religion**: Ernest is sent to a religious school and later to Cambridge, where he is expected to follow in his father’s footsteps and enter the clergy. However, Ernest’s experiences lead him to question the religious dogma he has been taught, and he begins to rebel against the expectations placed upon him.

- **Crisis and Disillusionment**: Ernest’s life takes a series of unfortunate turns, including a disastrous marriage and a period of imprisonment. These events contribute to his growing disillusionment with the society around him.

- **Self-Discovery and Independence**: After his release from prison, Ernest begins to find his own way in life, distancing himself from his family and their oppressive influence. He eventually comes to embrace a more independent and authentic existence, free from the constraints of his upbringing.

### Themes:
- **Critique of Victorian Society**: Butler uses the novel to criticize the oppressive social and moral structures of Victorian England, particularly the family and the church. He exposes the hypocrisy and rigidity of these institutions and their damaging effects on individual freedom and self-expression.

- **Religious Hypocrisy**: The novel is particularly critical of organized religion and its role in maintaining social control. Butler, who had his own struggles with religion, reflects this in Ernest’s journey from religious devotion to skepticism and eventual rejection of the church's authority.

- **Individualism and Personal Growth**: Ernest’s journey is one of self-discovery and liberation. The novel explores the importance of breaking free from societal expectations to live a life true to oneself.

- **Autobiographical Elements**: The novel is heavily autobiographical, with Ernest’s life mirroring many aspects of Butler’s own experiences, including his strained relationship with his parents and his rejection of the church.

### Significance:
"The Way of All Flesh" is considered one of the first modern novels for its psychological depth and its exploration of individual consciousness. It was ahead of its time in its criticism of Victorian morality and its focus on personal development. The novel’s unflinching look at the darker aspects of family life and religious conformity marked a departure from the more idealized portrayals common in Victorian literature.

Samuel Butler’s work influenced later writers and is often regarded as a precursor to the modernist movement in literature. "The Way of All Flesh" remains a significant novel for its exploration of the complexities of human nature and its critique of societal norms.